What Is the Framing Effect? Definition, Examples and How to Resist It

Imagine two labels on beef: “80% lean” and “20% fat.” They describe exactly the same product, yet most people find the first more appealing. The numbers are identical; the story around them is not.

That gap between the facts and how they feel is the framing effect, one of the best-documented findings in the psychology of decision-making.

What is the framing effect?

The framing effect is a cognitive bias in which our choices change depending on how the same information is presented, especially whether it emphasises potential gains or potential losses. Logically, the way a choice is described should not matter if the underlying outcomes are the same. In practice, it matters a great deal.

The classic research

The Asian disease problem

In a famous 1981 study, Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman asked people to imagine preparing for an outbreak of a disease expected to kill 600 people, with two programmes to choose from.

• Gain frame: Programme A will save 200 people. Programme B has a one-third chance of saving everyone and a two-thirds chance of saving nobody. Most people chose the certain option, A.
• Loss frame: Programme C means 400 people will die. Programme D has a one-third chance that nobody dies and a two-thirds chance that all 600 die. Most people now chose the gamble, D.

The outcomes in both versions are mathematically identical. Only the wording changed: “saved” versus “die.” People tend to avoid risk when options are framed as gains and seek risk when they are framed as losses.

Prospect theory

The explanation comes from Kahneman and Tversky’s earlier prospect theory, which proposes that losses loom larger than equivalent gains. This idea, loss aversion, is why a lost £50 hurts more than a found £50 pleases. It also links to negativity bias, the broader tendency for bad information to weigh more heavily than good.

Everyday examples

Medicine

“This surgery has a 90 percent survival rate” feels far safer than “10 percent of patients die.” Studies find that both patients and clinicians respond differently to these statements even though the odds are the same.

Shopping

“Save $20” often feels better than “avoid paying $20 extra.” A “50% off” tag makes a $200 jacket seem like a bargain, a story that overlaps with the anchoring bias.

Food and health

“Low fat,” “95% fat-free,” and “contains 5% fat” all sound different while describing the same thing.

Money and investing

People are more willing to take risks to avoid a certain loss than to secure an equivalent gain, which can lead to holding on to losing investments. This is closely related to the sunk cost fallacy.

Politics and public messaging

“Tax relief” and “tax cut” evoke different reactions. “Death tax” and “estate tax” describe the same thing but feel different.

Everyday conversation

“I’m 90 percent sure” and “there’s a 10 percent chance I’m wrong” can steer how seriously a listener responds.

Types of framing

Researchers Irwin Levin and colleagues describe three broad kinds:

• Risky choice framing: the same gamble described as gains or losses, as in the Asian disease problem.
• Attribute framing: a single feature described positively or negatively, such as “80% lean” versus “20% fat.”
• Goal framing: a message emphasising what you gain by acting versus what you lose by not acting, such as “get a free check-up” versus “don’t miss a check-up.”

They found that not all frames work the same way, which is why framing effects vary in size.

How to reduce the framing effect

1. Restate the choice in the opposite frame

If you are told “90% survive,” ask: What does that look like as “10% do not”? Seeing both versions makes the equivalence clear.

2. Convert percentages to counts

“20% fat” feels abstract; “20 grams of fat in 100 grams” is concrete. For risks, think “10 out of 100 people” rather than “10%.”

3. Ask what is actually different

List the real outcomes of each option. If the outcomes are the same, the wording should not change your decision.

4. Look at the whole picture

A frame highlights one aspect and hides others. Ask what has been left out: costs, alternatives, base rates.

5. Slow down for important decisions

Framing works fastest in quick, intuitive judgement. Pausing gives your analytical thinking time to catch up.

6. Notice who benefits from the frame

Marketers, politicians and negotiators choose frames on purpose. Asking “why this wording?” helps you step back.

7. Use framing on yourself

You can deliberately choose helpful frames for your own goals, such as seeing exercise as “investing in energy” instead of “avoiding illness,” when that helps motivation, as long as you stay clear about the facts.

A worked example

Dr Patel tells Sam, “This treatment has a 10 percent complication rate.” Sam feels frightened and leans toward declining.

• Re-frame: Sam asks, “What does that look like the other way around?” The answer: 90 out of 100 people have no complications.
• Counts: Sam asks how many of 100 people are affected in each option, including doing nothing.
• Whole picture: Sam asks what the risks are without treatment.
• Decision: with the information framed both ways, Sam makes a calmer choice, based on all the numbers instead of the wording of one.

Common mistakes

• Assuming you are immune. Experts and well-educated people show framing effects too.
• Looking at one frame only. Always try the opposite wording.
• Mixing up percentages. Convert to counts for clarity.
• Treating all framing as manipulation. Framing is unavoidable; all communication has a frame.
• Confusing framing with anchoring. Framing changes how information is described; anchoring is about a starting number pulling estimates.

Frequently asked questions

What is the framing effect in simple terms?

Making different decisions depending on whether the same information is described as a gain or a loss.

What is an example of the framing effect?

Preferring “90% survive” over “10% die,” even though both describe the same odds.

Who discovered the framing effect?

Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, in a widely cited 1981 paper in Science.

What is the difference between framing and anchoring?

Framing is about how the same facts are worded; anchoring is about an initial number influencing later estimates.

Is the framing effect always strong?

No. The size varies with the type of framing, the audience and the context, as shown in later research.

How can I avoid the framing effect?

Restate the choice in the opposite frame, convert percentages to counts and ask what the real outcomes are.

The bottom line

How a choice is worded can change what we pick, even when the facts are the same. Restate it both ways, convert percentages into numbers of people or pounds and ask what has actually changed. The aim is not to ignore the story, but to see the facts underneath it.